Topic 2: Additional Core Definitions

A note on additional core definitions

Illiberalism is a complex political phenomenon, and scholars use a wide range of concepts to study it, including many that go beyond this module. Concepts such as the rule of law, democratic erosion, autocratization, polarization, legitimacy, and consolidation all play an important role in academic debates.

For the purposes of this course and this quiz, however, the focus is on a limited set of additional definitions that are frequently used in public debate and media coverage of illiberal politics. These concepts are introduced not to provide an exhaustive overview, but to help participants recognize how illiberalism is discussed, framed, and sometimes misunderstood in everyday political discourse.The goal of this chapter is therefore clarity, not completeness: to provide participants with a practical vocabulary for understanding and evaluating claims about illiberalism in contemporary politics.

PLURALISM

Definition
Pluralism is the liberal-democratic principle that political, social, cultural, and moral diversity is legitimate and protected, even when it challenges majority preferences. Pluralism assumes that societies are made up of different groups with competing values, interests, and identities—and that no single group has a monopoly on truth or representation. Pluralism does not mean the absence of conflict, nor does it require agreement. Illiberal actors often reject pluralism by claiming that only one worldview, culture, or identity truly represents “the people.”

OPEN VS. CLOSED SOCIETY

An open society is one in which individuals are free to choose their identities, beliefs, and ways of life, and where institutions protect diversity, criticism, and change. A closed society prioritizes social homogeneity, tradition, hierarchy, and conformity, often justified in the name of cultural survival or national unity.The open–closed distinction is not simply about left vs. right politics, nor about globalization alone. Illiberalism tends to favor closed-society ideals even while operating within democratic institutions. Debates over freedom of speech illustrate that pressures on openness do not stem exclusively from illiberal or right-wing actors; they may also arise in progressive contexts, for example through calls to restrict speech in the name of harm prevention or moral responsibility.

POWER CONCENTRATION

Power concentration refers to the process by which political authority becomes increasingly centralized—typically in the executive—while checks and balances, judicial independence, and oversight institutions are weakened. Power concentration does not necessarily require coups or the suspension of elections. In illiberal systems, it often occurs gradually and legally, justified as efficiency, stability, or majority rule.

HYBRID REGIMES

Hybrid regimes are political systems that combine democratic and authoritarian elements. They often hold elections and allow some political competition, but systematically undermine liberal guarantees such as media freedom, judicial independence, or equal political rights. Hybrid regimes are not temporary anomalies by definition, nor are they simply “flawed democracies.” Research shows they can be stable and institutionalized over time.

POPULISM

Populism is a political style or ideology that portrays politics as a struggle between “the pure people” and “corrupt elites,” and claims that only one actor or movement truly represents the people’s will. Populism is not the same as illiberalism. Populist movements can be democratic or illiberal. Illiberalism emerges when populist claims are combined with the rejection of pluralism, minority rights, and institutional constraints.

Sources to study further:
Enyedi (2024), Markowski & Kotnarowski (2025), Laruelle (2022), Kauth & King (2020), Wagner et al. (2025)